Science

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Wi-Fi up to five times faster coming in 2015

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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Wi-Fi up to five times faster coming in 2015</span></div>
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Samsung Electronics has developed a new way of transmitting Wi-Fi data five times faster than was previously possible. The new technology is expected to be available in consumer devices as early as 2015.</div>
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<img alt="wifi" border="0" height="650" src="http://www.futuretimeline.net/blog/images/1537.jpg" width="650" /></div>
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If you've been to a cafe or other public place recently and been frustrated at the slow speed of Wi-Fi, a new breakthrough by Samsung Electronics may soon change that. Researchers at the company have this week achieved the development of 60GHz Wi-Fi allowing transfer rates of 4.6Gbps, or 575MB per second. That is 5.3 times faster than the previous maximum speed for consumer devices (866Mbps, or 108MB per second).</div>
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Today's generation of Wi-Fi uses the 2.4Ghz and 5Ghz areas of the radio spectrum. The 60GHz band is currently unlicensed and offers major potential, but previous attempts to exploit it have failed to send data over significant distances, due to path loss and weak penetration properties. Samsung has overcome these issues through a combination of millimetre-wave circuit design, a high performance modem and wide-coverage beam-forming antenna. This eliminates co-channel interference, regardless of the number of devices using the same network.</div>
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Commercialisation is expected in 2015, with Samsung planning integration into a wide variety of products – including audio visual, medical devices and telecommunications equipment. It will also help to spur the Internet of Things.</div>
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“Samsung prides itself at being of the forefront of technology innovation, and is delighted to have overcome the barriers to the commercialisation of 60GHz millimetre-wave band Wi-Fi technology,” said Paul Templeton, General Manager of Samsung Networks UK. “This breakthrough has opened the door to exciting possibilities for Samsung’s next-generation devices, and has also changed the face of the future development of Wi-Fi technology, promising innovations that were not previously within reach.”</div>
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To give an idea of the speed: a 1GB movie will take less than three seconds to transfer between devices, while uncompressed high-definition videos could easily be streamed from mobile devices to TVs in real-time without any delay.</div>
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Wi-Fi up to five times faster coming in 2015

Wi-Fi up to five times faster coming in 2015 Samsung Electronics has developed a new way of transmitting Wi-Fi data five times faster th...

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3-D haptic shapes can be seen and felt in mid-air

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New research, using ultrasound, has developed a 3-D haptic shape that can be seen and felt in mid-air.</div>
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Touch feedback technology – known as haptics – has advanced rapidly in recent years. It is now used in a range of applications including entertainment, rehabilitation and even surgical training. New research by the University of Bristol, using ultrasound, has created a virtual 3-D haptic shape that can be seen and felt in mid-air.</div>
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This breakthrough, led by Dr Ben Long and colleagues at the university's Department of Computer Science, could improve the way 3-D shapes are used and function as an important new tool in certain situations. It could enable surgeons to explore a CT scan, for example, by enabling them to actually "feel" a disease, such as a tumour.</div>
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The method uses ultrasound, focussed onto hands above the device and can be felt. By focussing complex patterns of ultrasound, the air disturbances can be seen as floating 3-D shapes. Visually, the researchers have demonstrated the ultrasound patterns by directing the device at a thin layer of oil so that the depressions in the surface can be seen as spots when lit by a lamp.</div>
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The system generates a virtual 3-D shape that can be added to 3-D displays to create a holographic effect that can be seen and felt. The research team have also shown that users can match a picture of a 3-D shape to the shape created by the system. They have already been approached by companies interested in commercialising the technology. At this early stage of development, the level of detail in the virtual objects is limited, but using a greater number of speakers at smaller sizes could improve the resolution of projections.</div>
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“Touchable holograms, immersive virtual reality that you can feel and complex touchable controls in free space, are all possible ways of using this system,” says Dr Long. “In the future, people could feel holograms of objects that would not otherwise be touchable, such as feeling the differences between materials in a CT scan or understanding the shapes of artefacts in a museum.”</div>
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The research paper is published in ACM Transactions on Graphics and is presented at this week’s SIGGRAPH Asia 2014 conference [3-6 December].</div>
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3-D haptic shapes can be seen and felt in mid-air

New research, using ultrasound, has developed a 3-D haptic shape that can be seen and felt in mid-air. Touch feedback technology –...

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I've been a Business Man

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insightful look at what it really takes to be a successful business owner.</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I've been a Business Man most of
my adult life. Recently, on a long business flight, I began thinking about what
it takes to become successful as a Business Man—and how I would even define the
meaning “success” itself. The two ideas became more intertwined in my thinking:
success as a Business Man, Business Man success.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I've given a lot of talks over
the years on the subject of Business Man ship. The first thing I find I have to
do is to dispel the persistent myth that Business Man success is <i>all</i> about
innovative thinking and breakthrough ideas. I've found that Business Man
success usually comes through <i>great execution</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But what else does it take to
succeed as a Business Man—and how should a Business Man define success? Here's
my top 10 list, in descending order, for success:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #174973; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">How to Be a
Success<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10. You must be passionate about
what you're trying to achieve</span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. This means you’re willing to
sacrifice a large part of your waking hours to the idea you’ve come up with.
Passion will ignite the same intensity in the others who join you as you build
a team to succeed in this endeavor. And with passion, both your team and your
customers are more likely to truly believe in what you are trying to do.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9. Focus intensely on your
opportunity.</span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> This focus and intensity helps to eliminate wasted effort
and distractions. Most companies die from indigestion rather than starvation—in
other words, companies suffer from doing too many things at the same time
rather than doing too few things very well. Stay focused on the mission.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8. Success only comes from hard
work.</span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> We all know that there is no such thing as overnight
success. Behind every overnight success lies years of hard work and sweat.
People with luck will tell you there’s no easy way to achieve success—and that
luck comes to those who work hard. Successful Business Mans always give 100
percent of their efforts to everything they do. If you know you are giving your
best effort, you’ll never have any reason for regrets. Keep your focus on
things you can control.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7. the road to success is going
to be long, so remember to enjoy the journey.</span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Everyone
will teach you to focus on goals, but successful people focus on the
journey <i>and</i> celebrate the milestones along the way. Is it
worth spending a large part of your life trying to reach the destination if you
didn’t enjoy the journey along the way? Won’t the team you attract to join your
mission also enjoy the journey more as well? Wouldn’t it be better for all of
you to have the time of your life <i>during </i>the journey, even if
the destination is never reached?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6. Trust your gut instinct more
than any spreadsheet.</span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> There are too many variables in the real world that you
simply can’t put into a spreadsheet. Spreadsheets spit out results from your
inexact assumptions and give you a false sense of security. In most cases, your
heart and gut are still your best guide. We’ve all had experiences in business
where our heart told us something was wrong while our brain was still trying to
use logic to figure it all out. Sometimes a faint voice based on instinct
resonates far more strongly than overpowering logic.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Be flexible but persistent.</span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Every Business
Man has to be agile in order to perform. You have to continually learn and
adapt as new information becomes available. At the same time you have to remain
persistent to the cause and mission of your enterprise. That’s where that faint
voice becomes so important, especially when it is giving you early warning
signals that things are going off-track. Successful Business Mans find the
balance between listening to that voice and staying persistent in driving for
success—because sometimes success is waiting right across from the transitional
bump that’s disguised as failure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. Rely on your team.</span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> It’s a
simple fact: No individual can be good at everything. Everyone needs people
around them who have complementary skill sets. Business Mans are an optimistic
bunch of people and it’s very hard for them to believe that they are not good
at certain things. It takes a lot of soul searching to find your own core
skills and strengths. After that, find the smartest people you can who <i>complement </i>your
strengths. It’s easy to get attracted to people who are like you; the trick is
to find people who are not like you but who are good at what they do—and what
you can’t do.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Execution, execution,
execution</span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. Unless you are the smartest person on earth, it’s likely that
many others have thought about doing the same thing you’re trying to do.
Success doesn’t necessarily come from breakthrough innovation but from flawless
execution. A great strategy alone won’t win a game or a battle; the win comes
from basic blocking and tackling. All of us have seen Business Mans who waste
too much time writing business plans and preparing PowerPoints. I believe that
a business plan is too long if it’s more than one page. Besides, things
never turn out the way you envisioned them. No matter how much time you spend
perfecting the plan, you still have to adapt according to the ground realities.
You’re going to learn a lot more useful information from taking action rather
than hypothesizing. Remember—stay flexible and adapt as new information becomes
available.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. be honest and show
integrity. </span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I can’t imagine anyone ever achieving long-term success without
having honesty and integrity. These two qualities need to be at the core of
everything we do. Everybody has a conscience—but too many people stop listening
to it. There is always that faint voice that warns you when you are not being
completely honest or even slightly off track from the path of integrity. Be
sure to listen to that voice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Appreciate your success by
giving back. </span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Don't ever forget this part, arguably the most important part,
of defining yourself as a true success. By the time you achieve your success,
lots of people will have helped you along the way. You’ll learn, as I have,
that you rarely get a chance to help the people who helped you because in most
cases, you don’t even know who they were. The only way to pay back the debts we
owe is to help people we can help—and hope they will go on to help more people.
When we are successful, we draw so much from the community and society that we
live in, we should think in terms of how we can help others in return. It’s our
responsibility to do “good” with the resources we have available.  <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="line-height: 26.25pt;"><span style="color: #174973; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">How to Measure
Success?</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hopefully, you have internalized
the 10 lessons of becoming a successful Business Man. The next question you are
likely to ask yourself is: How do we measure success? Success, of course, is
very personal; there is no universal way of measuring success. What do
successful people like Bill Gates and Mother Teresa have in common? On the
surface, it’s hard to find anything they share—and yet both are successful. I
personally believe the real metric of success isn’t the size of your bank
account. It’s the number of lives where you might be able to make a positive
difference. This is the measure of success we need to apply while we are on our
journey to success.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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I've been a Business Man

Would you consider yourself a success? An insightful look at what it really takes to be a successful business owner. I've ...

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DIY Electronics - LED display digital Voltmeter

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<a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/image_2.jpg"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: small;"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/image_2.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></span></a></h2>
<div class="project">
<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>front side</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Copyright of this circuit belongs to smart kit electronics. In this page we will use this circuit to discuss for improvements and we will introduce some changes based on original schematic.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<strong><span style="color: #990000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">General Description</span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></strong>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">This is an easy to build, but nevertheless very accurate and useful digital voltmeter. It has been designed as a panel meter and can be used in DC power supplies or anywhere else it is necessary to have an accurate indication of the voltage present. The circuit employs the ADC (Analogue to Digital Converter) I.C. CL7107 made by INTERSIL. This IC incorporates in a 40 pin case all the circuitry necessary to convert an analogue signal to digital and can drive a series of four seven segment LED displays directly. The circuits built into the IC are an analogue to digital converter, a comparator, a clock, a decoder and a seven segment LED display driver. The circuit as it is described here can display any DC voltage in the range of 0-1999 Volts.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<strong><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Technical Specifications - Characteristics</span></strong><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Supply Voltage: ............. +/- 5 V (Symmetrical)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Power requirements: ..... 200 mA (maximum)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Measuring range: .......... +/- 0-1,999 VDC in four ranges</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Accuracy: ....................... 0.1 %</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">FEATURES</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Small size</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Easy construction</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Low cost.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Simple adjustment.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Easy to read from a distance.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Few external components.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<strong><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">How it Works</span></strong><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">In order to understand the principle of operation of the circuit it is necessary to explain how the ADC IC works. This IC has the following very important features:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Great accuracy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- It is not affected by noise.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- No need for a sample and hold circuit.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- It has a built-in clock.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- It has no need for high accuracy external components.</span><br />
<a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/schematic.gif"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/schematic.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></span></a><br />
<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>Schematic (fixed 22-2-04)</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/7seg.gif"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/7seg.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span><br />
<b style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></b>
<b style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">7-segment display pinout MAN6960</b><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">An Analogue to Digital Converter, (ADC from now on) is better known as a dual slope converter or integrating converter. This type of converter is generally preferred over other types as it offers accuracy, simplicity in design and a relative indifference to noise which makes it very reliable. The operation of the circuit is better understood if it is described in two stages. During the first stage and for a given period the input voltage is integrated, and in the output of the integrator at the end of this period, there is a voltage which is directly proportional to the input voltage. At the end of the preset period the integrator is fed with an internal reference voltage and the output of the circuit is gradually reduced until it reaches the level of the zero reference voltage. This second phase is known as the negative slope period and its duration depends on the output of the integrator in the first period. As the duration of the first operation is fixed and the length of the second is variable it is possible to compare the two and this way the input voltage is in fact compared to the internal reference voltage and the result is coded and is send to the display.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/image_3.jpg"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/image_3.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>Back side :-</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">All this sounds quite easy but it is in fact a series of very complex operations which are all made by the ADC IC with the help of a few external components which are used to configure the circuit for the job. In detail the circuit works as follows. The voltage to be measured is applied across points 1 and 2 of the circuit and through the circuit R3, R4 and C4 is finally applied to pins 30 and 31 of the IC. These are the input of the IC as you can see from its diagram. (IN HIGH & IN LOW respectively). The resistor R1 together with C1 are used to set the frequency of the internal oscillator (clock) which is set at about 48 Hz. At this clock rate there are about three different readings per second. The capacitor C2 which is connected between pins 33 and 34 of the IC has been selected to compensate for the error caused by the internal reference voltage and also keeps the display steady. The capacitor C3 and the resistor R5 are together the circuit that does the integration of the input voltage and at the same time prevent any division of the input voltage making the circuit faster and more reliable as the possibility of error is greatly reduced. The capacitor C5 forces the instrument to display zero when there is no voltage at its input. The resistor R2 together with P1 are used to adjust the instrument during set-up so that it displays zero when the input is zero. The resistor R6 controls the current that is allowed to flow through the displays so that there is sufficient brightness with out damaging them. The IC as we have already mentioned above is capable to drive four common anode LED displays. The three rightmost displays are connected so that they can display all the numbers from 0 to 9 while the first from the left can only display the number 1 and when the voltage is negative the «-« sign. The whole circuit operates from a symmetrical ρ 5 VDC supply which is applied at pins 1 (+5 V), 21 (0 V) and 26 (-5 V) of the IC.</span><br />
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<strong><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Construction</span></strong><br />
<strong><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></strong>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">First of all let us consider a few basics in building electronic circuits on a printed circuit board. The board is made of a thin insulating material clad with a thin layer of conductive copper that is shaped in such a way as to form the necessary conductors between the various components of the circuit. The use of a properly designed printed circuit board is very desirable as it speeds construction up considerably and reduces the possibility of making errors. To protect the board during storage from oxidation and assure it gets to you in perfect condition the copper is tinned during manufacturing and covered with a special varnish that protects it from getting oxidised and also makes soldering easier.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Soldering the components to the board is the only way to build your circuit and from the way you do it depends greatly your success or failure. This work is not very difficult and if you stick to a few rules you should have no problems. The soldering iron that you use must be light and its power should not exceed the 25 Watts. The tip should be fine and must be kept clean at all times. For this purpose come very handy specially made sponges that are kept wet and from time to time you can wipe the hot tip on them to remove all the residues that tend to accumulate on it.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">DO NOT file or sandpaper a dirty or worn out tip. If the tip cannot be cleaned, replace it. There are many different types of solder in the market and you should choose a good quality one that contains the necessary flux in its core, to assure a perfect joint every time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">DO NOT use soldering flux apart from that which is already included in your solder. Too much flux can cause many problems and is one of the main causes of circuit malfunction. If nevertheless you have to use extra flux, as it is the case when you have to tin copper wires, clean it very thoroughly after you finish your work.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">In order to solder a component correctly you should do the following:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Clean the component leads with a small piece of emery paper.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Bend them at the correct distance from the component’s body and insert the component in its place on the board.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- You may find sometimes a component with heavier gauge leads than usual, that are too thick to enter in the holes of the p.c. board. In this case use a mini drill to enlarge the holes slightly. Do not make the holes too large as this is going to make soldering difficult afterwards.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/layout_full.jpg"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/layout_full.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>Parts placement</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/pcb_full.gif"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/pcb_full.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">PCB dimensions: 77,6mm x 44,18mm or scale it at 35%</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Take the hot iron and place its tip on the component lead while holding the end of the solder wire at the point where the lead emerges from the board. The iron tip must touch the lead slightly above the p.c. board.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- When the solder starts to melt and flow wait till it covers evenly the area around the hole and the flux boils and gets out from underneath the solder. The whole operation should not take more than 5 seconds. Remove the iron and allow the solder to cool naturally without blowing on it or moving the component. If everything was done properly the surface of the joint must have a bright metallic finish and its edges should be smoothly ended on the component lead and the board track. If the solder looks dull, cracked, or has the shape of a blob then you have made a dry joint and you should remove the solder (with a pump, or a solder wick) and redo it.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Take care not to overheat the tracks as it is very easy to lift them from the board and break them.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- When you are soldering a sensitive component it is good practice to hold the lead from the component side of the board with a pair of long-nose pliers to divert any heat that could possibly damage the component.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Make sure that you do not use more solder than it is necessary as you are running the risk of short-circuiting adjacent tracks on the board, especially if they are very close together.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- When you finish your work, cut off the excess of the component leads and clean the board thoroughly with a suitable solvent to remove all flux residues that may still remain on it.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/image_1.jpg"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/image_1.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">As it is recommended start working by identifying the components and separating them in groups. There are two points in the construction of this project that you should observe:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">First of all the display IC’s are placed from the copper side of the board and second the jumper connection which is marked by a dashed line on the component side at the same place where the displays are located is not a single jumper but it should be changed according to the use of the instrument. This jumper is used to control the decimal point of the display.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">If you are going to use the instrument for only one range you can make the jumper connection between the rightmost hole on the board and the one corresponding to the desired position for the decimal point for your particular application. If you are planning to use the voltmeter in different ranges you should use a single pole three position switch to shift the decimal point to the correct place for the range of measurement selected. (This switch could preferably be combined with the switch that is used to actually change the sensitivity of the instrument).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Apart from this consideration, and the fact that the small size of the board and the great number of joints on it which calls for a very fine tipped soldering iron, the construction of the project is very straightforward.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Insert the IC socket and solder it in place, solder the pins, continue with the resistors the capacitors and the multi-turn trimmer P1. Turn the board over and very carefully solder the display IC’s from the copper side of the board. Remember to inspect the joints of the base of the IC as one row will be covered by the displays and will be impossible to see any mistake that you may have made after you have soldered the displays into place.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The value of R3 controls in fact the range of measurement of the voltmeter and if you provide for some means to switch different resistors in its place you can use the instrument over a range of voltages.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>For the replacement resistors follow the table below:</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">0 - 2 V ............ R3 = 0 ohm 1%</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">0 - 20 V ........... R3 = 1.2 Kohm 1%</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">0 - 200 V .......... R3 = 12 Kohm 1%</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">0 - 2000 V ......... R3 = 120 Kohm 1%</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">When you have finished all the soldering on the board and you are sure that everything is OK you can insert the IC in its place. The IC is CMOS and is very sensitive to static electricity. It comes wrapped in aluminium foil to protect it from static discharges and it should be handled with great care to avoid damaging it. Try to avoid touching its pins with your hands and keep the circuit and your body at ground potential when you insert it in its place.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Connect the circuit to a suitable power supply ρ 5 VDC and turn the supply on. The displays should light immediately and should form a number. Short circuit the input (0 V) and adjust the trimmer P1 until the display indicates exactly «0».</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<strong><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Parts</span></strong><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R1 180k</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R2 22k</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R3 12k</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R4 1M</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R5 470k</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R6 560 Ohm</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">C1 100pF</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">C2, C6, C7 100nF</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">C3 47nF</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">C4 10nF</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">C5 220nF</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">P1 20k trimmer multi turn</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">U1 ICL 7107</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">LD1,2,3,4 MAN 6960 common anode led displays</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<strong><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">If it does not work</span></strong><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Check your work for possible dry joints, bridges across adjacent tracks or soldering flux residues that usually cause problems.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Check again all the external connections to and from the circuit to see if there is a mistake there.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- See that there are no components missing or inserted in the wrong places.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Make sure that all the polarised components have been soldered the right way round. - Make sure the supply has the correct voltage and is connected the right way round to your circuit.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Check your project for faulty or damaged components.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Sample Power supply 1</span><br />
<a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/dvm_pw.gif"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/dvm_pw.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></span></a><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>Sample Power Supply 2</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/dvm_pw1.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></span></div>
</div>

DIY Electronics - LED display digital Voltmeter

front side Copyright of this circuit belongs to smart kit electronics. In this page we will use this circuit to discuss for improvemen...

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DIY Electronics - Metal Detector

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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><strong>Circuit diagram</strong></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/266/bigs/metal_detector.gif"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/266/metal_detector.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The circuit described here is that of a metal detector. The opera- tion of the circuit is based on superheterodyning principle which is commonly used in superhet receivers. The circuit utilises two RF oscillators. The frequencies of both oscillators are fixed at 5.5 MHz. The first RF oscillator comprises transistor T1 (BF 494) and a 5.5MHz ceramic filter commonly used in TV sound-IF section. The second oscillator is a Colpitt’s oscillator realised with the help of transistor T3 (BF494) and inductor L1 (whose construction details follow) shunted by trimmer capacitor VC1. These two oscillators’ frequencies (say Fx and Fy) are mixed in the mixer transistor T2 (another BF 494) and the difference or the beat frequency (Fx-Fy) output from collector of transistor T2 is connected to detector stage comprising diodes D1 and D2 (both OA 79). The output is a pulsating DC which is passed through a low-pass filter realised with the help of a 10k resistor R12 and two 15nF capacitors C6 and C10. It is then passed to AF amplifier IC1 (2822M) via volume</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br />control VR1 and the output is fed to an 8-ohm/1W speaker. The inductor L1 can be constructed using 15 turns of 25SWG wire on a 10cm (4-inch) diameter air-core former and then cementing it with insulating varnish. For proper operation of the circuit it is critical that frequencies of both the oscillators are the same so as to obtain zero beat in the absence of any metal in the near vicinity of the circuit. The alignment of oscillator 2 (to match oscillator 1 frequency) can be done with the help of trimmer capacitor VC1. When the two frequencies are equal, the beat frequency is zero, i.e. beat frquency=Fx-Fy=0, and thus there is no sound from the loudspeaker. When search coil L1 passes over metal, the metal changes its inductance, thereby changing the second oscillator’s frequency. So now Fx-Fy is not zero and the loudspeaker sounds. Thus one is able to detect presence of metal.</span></div>
</div>

DIY Electronics - Metal Detector

Circuit diagram The circuit described here is that of a metal detector. The opera- tion of the circuit is based on superheterodyning...

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DIY Electronics - Solid State Tesla Coil / High Voltage Generator

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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">This is a fun and useful circuit for demonstrating high frequency high voltge. It can produce up to about 30KV, depending on the transformer used. It is cheap and easy to make, thanks to the standard TV flyback transformer used. It can power LASERS (although I have never tried), demonstrate St.Elmo's fire, and even cause a fluorescent bulb to light from as much as 2 feet away.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><strong>Circuit diagram</strong><br /><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/bigs/hvgen.gif"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/hvgen.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><strong>Parts</strong><br />R1 27 Ohm 5W Resistor or 27 Ohm 10W Resistor<br />R2 240 Ohm 5W Resistor or 240 Ohm 10W Resistor<br />BR1 50 Volt, 6 Amp Bridge Rectifier<br />C1 8000uf, 35 Volt Capacitor<br />Q1, Q2 2N3055 NPN Power Transistor<br />T1 24V 5A Transformer (See "Notes")<br />T2 TV Flyback Transformer (See "Notes")<br />S1 115V 3A SPST Switch<br />MISC Case, Wire, Heatsinks, Line Cord</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><strong>Notes</strong><br />1. T2 is a high voltage flyback transformer salvaged from an old TV, or ordered from Fair Radio Sales (see <a href="http://www.jeevanelectronics.com/Forms/Add_Cart_General.aspx">Where To Get</a> Parts). Look for the biggest, most intimidating transformer you can find. Old tube TV's are a good place to look. The transformer should not have a rectifier built in.<br />2. You will need to rewind the transformer's primary. First, remove the old primary, being careful not to damage the high voltage secondary. If the transformer is wound with all windings incased in plastic, use another transformer. Second, wind on 5 turns of 18 AWG wire, twist a loop (center tap), and then wind on 5 more turns. This becomes winding C-D. Now, wind on 2 turns of 22 AWG wire, twist a loop, and wind on 2 more turns. This becomes winding A-B.<br />3. Q1 and Q2 will run HOT if not used with a large heatsink. After the circuit has been running for a minute or two, you should still be able to put your finger on the transistors without being burnt. Also, R1 and R2 will run hot.<br />4. If you experience arcing on the exposed transformer leads, select a lower voltage for T1. If you are powering the circuit with a power supply (see <a href="http://www.jeevanelectronics.com/Forms/Add_Cart_General.aspx">Power Supply</a>), just crank down the voltage.<br />5. For a real high voltage output, connect a voltage multiplier (from an old TV or computer monitor) to the output of T2.<br />6. If the circuit does not work, reverse connections A and B.<br />7. I finally got around to taking some pictures of the circuit in operation. Here they are:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/bigs/hvgen1.jpg"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/hvgen1.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a> <a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/bigs/hvgen2.jpg"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/hvgen2.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The first picture is the high voltage generator without the voltage multiplier. Notice how hot the arc looks. The second picture is the high voltage generator with a voltage multiplier installed. Notice how much brighter the arc is.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/bigs/hvgen3.jpg"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/hvgen3.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a> <a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/bigs/hvgen4.jpg"><img alt="" height="320" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/hvgen4.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" width="156" /></a> <a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/bigs/hvgen5.jpg"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/66/hvgen5.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The above pictures of myself were taken with me standing on an pie plate that was resting on the top of a plastic bucket. The pie plate was connected to the high voltage generator and charged to about 40,000V. If you do this, be sure to have someone else turn on and off the high voltage generator. Also, don't touch anything when you are charged. Have everything you are going to hold/play with already sitting on the bucket and away from grounded objects. Remember to take off your watch...</span></div>
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DIY Electronics - Solid State Tesla Coil / High Voltage Generator

This is a fun and useful circuit for demonstrating high frequency high voltge. It can produce up to about 30KV, depending on the transform...

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DIY Ideas

DIY Ideas

If u have any thing, Post we share our blogges with these ideas, Thank u.

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Welcome to the Newton Project

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The Newton Project is a non-profit organization dedicated to publishing in full an online edition of all of Sir Isaac Newton’s (1642–1727) writings — whether they were printed or not. The edition presents a full (diplomatic) rendition featuring all the amendments Newton made to his own texts or a more readable (normalised) version. We also make available <a href="http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/ref2014#trans" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-weight: bold; line-height: inherit;">translations</a> of his most important Latin religious texts.</div>
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Although Newton is best known for his theory of universal gravitation and discovery of calculus, his interests were much broader than is usually appreciated. In addition to his celebrated <a href="http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=45" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-weight: bold; line-height: inherit;">scientific</a> and <a href="http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=147" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #737373; font-weight: bold; line-height: inherit;">mathematical writings</a>, Newton also wrote many alchemical and religious texts.</div>
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We have published over four million words of text since January 2008, and have created a special section for reviewers working for the UK Research Excellence Framework (REF). This provides a list of every document published during the current REF cycle, along with key Research Inputs, Translations of major Latin texts and podcasted interviews with historians. Reviewers should refer to the main site in order to understand the way in which the documents have been classified and arranged within the site as a whole.</div>
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Thanks to www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk. </div>
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Welcome to the Newton Project

The Newton Project is a non-profit organization dedicated to publishing in full an online edition of all of Sir Isaac Newton’s (1642–1727)...

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LINARO - Not-for-profit engineering organization

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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_f4PI2wBhW9baMUrIpylul4foZpoauu7zQ4YpA2Px5XlEc_QUnhyphenhyphen9FLVgS_rLZHNMjbuoW2Bb7VRuXx0NzYcjVdewWuaysc2FMkokO8UXzApARg2w1JKWaTMG2OVbzVLOOryZ61pU0dpq/s1600/LIN.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="208" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_f4PI2wBhW9baMUrIpylul4foZpoauu7zQ4YpA2Px5XlEc_QUnhyphenhyphen9FLVgS_rLZHNMjbuoW2Bb7VRuXx0NzYcjVdewWuaysc2FMkokO8UXzApARg2w1JKWaTMG2OVbzVLOOryZ61pU0dpq/s1600/LIN.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;">Linaro</b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> is a </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">not-for-profit</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> engineering organization that works on </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">free and open-source software</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> such as the </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Linux kernel</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;">, the </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">GNU Compiler Collection</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> (GCC), ARM power management, graphics and multimedia interfaces for the </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">ARM</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> family of</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">instruction sets</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> and implementations thereof as well as for the </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Heterogeneous System Architecture</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;">. The founding of Linaro was announced at </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Computex</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> in June 2010 by </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">ARM</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;">, </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Freescale Semiconductor</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;">, </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">IBM</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;">, </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Samsung</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;">, </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">ST-Ericsson</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;">, and </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Texas Instruments</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> in a joint press conference.</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> It also provides engineering and investment in </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">upstream</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> open source projects, a monthly release of tools and software</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> and support to silicon companies in upstreaming code to be used with their</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">system-on-a-chips</span></span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.3999996185303px;"> (SoC). At some point Linaro joined the HSA Foundation.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Linaro focuses on the use of the <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">ARM instruction set</span> in its versions 7a (32-bit) and 8 (64-bit) including concrete<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">implementations</span> of these, such as SoCs that contain <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Cortex-A5</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Cortex-A7 MPCore</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Cortex-A8</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Cortex-A9 MPCore</span>,<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Cortex-A15</span>, <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Cortex-A53</span> or <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">Cortex-A57</span> processor. Linaro engineering works with upstream projects on a set of requirements that are determined by the Technical Steering Committee (TSC). At the end of each month there is a release of tools and software that acts as a staging tree for code that will be pushed upstream. Linaro works on software that is close to the silicon such as kernel, multimedia, power management, graphics and security. Linaro aims to provide stable, tested tools and code for multiple software distributions to use to reduce low-level fragmentation of embedded Linux software.</span></div>
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LINARO - Not-for-profit engineering organization

Linaro is a not-for-profit engineering organization that works on free and open-source software such as the Linux kernel , the...

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Magnetism

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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box;">Electromagnetism</span> is produced when an electrical current flows through a simple conductor such as a piece of wire or cable. A small magnetic field is created around the conductor with the direction of this magnetic field with regards to its “North” and “South” poles being determined by the direction of the current flowing through the conductor.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-Y-MrhdOUrVjwKi1LpPEAmMBh0z3QV9G08jYZsjEu-6qO7UmWi3gpBxLq-pweP7xNL1mwKI_C2xfo0HXevjJL4xVn9BT9E171vxiCPeZCFibfVIao3mXJvI9UzRzfRi4cAVaMYkPndQ2n/s1600/magnetism.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="254" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-Y-MrhdOUrVjwKi1LpPEAmMBh0z3QV9G08jYZsjEu-6qO7UmWi3gpBxLq-pweP7xNL1mwKI_C2xfo0HXevjJL4xVn9BT9E171vxiCPeZCFibfVIao3mXJvI9UzRzfRi4cAVaMYkPndQ2n/s1600/magnetism.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Magnetism</span> plays an important role in Electrical and Electronic Engineering because without it components such as relays, solenoids, inductors, chokes, coils, loudspeakers, motors, generators, transformers, and electricity meters etc, would not work if magnetism did not exist.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Then every coil of wire uses the effect of electromagnetism when an electrical current flows through it. But before we can look at <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Magnetism</span> and especially <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Electromagnetism</span> in more detail we need to remember back to our physics classes of how magnets and magnetism works.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><u>The Nature of Magnetism</u></span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnets can be found in a natural state in the form of a magnetic ore, with the two main types being <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Magnetite</span> also called “iron oxide”, ( FE<span style="bottom: -0.3em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">3</span>O<span style="bottom: -0.3em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">4</span> ) and <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Lodestone</span>, also called “leading stone”. If these two natural magnets are suspended from a piece of string, they will take up a position in-line with the Earth’s magnetic field always pointing north.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">A good example of this effect is the needle of a compass. For most practical applications these natural occurring magnets can be disregarded as their magnetism is very low and because nowadays, man-made artificial magnets can be produced in many different shapes, sizes and magnetic strengths.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">There are basically two forms of magnetism, “Permanent Magnets” and “Temporary Magnets”, with the type being used dependant upon its application. There are many different types of materials available to make magnets such as iron, nickel, nickel alloys, chromium and cobalt and in their natural state some of these elements such as nickel and cobalt show very poor magnetic quantities on their own.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">However, when mixed or “alloyed” together with other materials such as iron or aluminium peroxide they become very strong magnets producing unusual names such as “alcomax”, “hycomax”, “alni” and “alnico”.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic material in the non-magnetic state has its molecular structure in the form of loose magnetic chains or individual tiny magnets loosely arranged in a random pattern. The overall effect of this type of arrangement results in zero or very weak magnetism as this haphazard arrangement of each molecular magnet tends to neutralise its neighbour.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">When the material is <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Magnetised</span> this random arrangement of the molecules changes and the tiny unaligned and random molecular magnets become “lined-up” in such a way that they produce a series magnetic arrangement. This idea of the molecular alignment of ferromagnetic materials is known as <b style="box-sizing: border-box;">Weber’s Theory</b> and is illustrated below.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic Molecule Alignment of a Piece of Iron and a Magnet</span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="magnetic molecules" height="141" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag1.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Loose and Ordered Magnetic Molecules" width="447" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Weber’s theory is based on the fact that all atoms have magnetic properties due to the spinning action of the atoms electrons. Groups of atoms join together so that their magnetic fields are all rotating in the same direction. Magnetic materials are composed of groups of tiny magnets at a molecular level around the atoms, and a magnetised material will have most of its tiny magnets lined up in one direction only to produce a north pole in one direction and a south pole in the other direction.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Likewise, a material that has its tiny molecular magnets pointing in all directions will have its molecular magnets neutralised by its neighbouring magnet, thereby neutralising any magnetic effect. These areas of molecular magnets are called “domains”.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Any magnetic material will produce a magnetic field itself which depends on the degree of alignment of magnetic domains in the material set up by orbital and spinning electrons. This degree of alignment can be specified by a quantity known as magnetisation, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">M</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In an unmagnetised material, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">M = 0</span>, but some of the domains remain aligned over small regions in the material once the magnetic field is removed. The effect of applying a magnetising force to the material is to align some of the domains to produce a non-zero magnetisation value.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Once the magnetising force has been removed, the magnetism within the material will either remain or decay away quiet quickly depending on the magnetic material being used. This ability of a material to retain its magnetism is called <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Retentivity</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Materials which are required to retain their magnetism will have a fairly high retentivity and as such are used to make permanent magnets, while those materials required to loose their magnetism quickly such as soft iron cores for relays and solenoids will have a very low retentivity.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><u>Magnetic Flux</u></span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">All magnets, no matter what their shape, have two regions called magnetic poles with the magnetism both in and around a magnetic circuit producing a definite chain of organised and balanced pattern of invisible lines of flux around it. These lines of flux are collectively referred to as the “magnetic field” of the magnet. The shape of this magnetic field is more intense in some parts than others with the area of the magnet that has the greatest magnetism being called “poles”. At each end of a magnet is a pole.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">These lines of flux (called a vector field) can not be seen by the naked eye, but they can be seen visually by using iron fillings sprinkled onto a sheet of paper or by using a small compass to trace them out. Magnetic poles are always present in pairs, there is always a region of the magnet called the <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">North-pole</span> and there is always an opposite region called the <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">South-pole</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic fields are always shown visually as lines of force that give a definite pole at each end of the material where the flux lines are more dense and concentrated. The lines which go to make up a magnetic field showing the direction and intensity are called <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Lines of Force</span> or more commonly “Magnetic Flux” and are given the Greek symbol, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Phi</span> ( <span class="mtxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">Φ</span> ) as shown below.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of Force from a Bar Magnets Magnetic Field</span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="lines of magnetic force" height="292" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag2.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Lines of Magnetic Force" width="289" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> <span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;">As shown above, the magnetic field is strongest near to the poles of the magnet were the lines of flux are more closely spaced. The general direction for the magnetic flux flow is from the</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> </span><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: center;">North</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;">( </span><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: center;">N</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> ) to the</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> </span><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: center;">South</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;">( </span><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: center;">S</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> ) pole. In addition, these magnetic lines form closed loops that leave at the north pole of the magnet and enter at the south pole. Magnetic poles are always in pairs.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">However, magnetic flux does not actually flow from the north to the south pole or flow anywhere for that matter as magnetic flux is a static region around a magnet in which the magnetic force exists. In other words magnetic flux does not flow or move it is just there and is not influenced by gravity. Some important facts emerge when plotting lines of force:</span></div>
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<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">NEVER</span> cross.</span></li>
<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force are <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">CONTINUOUS</span>.</span></li>
<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force always form individual <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">CLOSED LOOPS</span> around the magnet.</span></li>
<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force have a definite <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">DIRECTION</span> from North to South.</span></li>
<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force that are close together indicate a <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">STRONG</span> magnetic field.</span></li>
<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force that are farther apart indicate a <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">WEAK</span> magnetic field.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic forces attract and repel like electric forces and when two lines of force are brought close together the interaction between the two magnetic fields causes one of two things to occur:</span></div>
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">1.</span>  –  When adjacent poles are the same, (north-north or south-south) they <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">REPEL</span> each other.</span></li>
<li style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">2.</span>  –  When adjacent poles are not the same, (north-south or south-north) they <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">ATTRACT</span> each other.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">This effect is easily remembered by the famous expression that “opposites attract” and this interaction of magnetic fields can be easily demonstrated using iron fillings to show the lines of force around a magnet. The effect upon the magnetic fields of the various combinations of poles as like poles repel and unlike poles attract can be seen below.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic Field of Like and Unlike Poles</span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="magnetic poles" height="502" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag3.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Like and Unlike Magnetic Poles" width="410" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> <span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;">When plotting magnetic field lines with a compass it will be seen that the lines of force are produced in such a way as to give a definite pole at each end of the magnet where the lines of force leave the North pole and re-enter at the South pole. Magnetism can be destroyed by heating or hammering the magnetic material, but cannot be destroyed or isolated by simply breaking the magnet into two pieces.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">So if you take a normal bar magnet and break it into two pieces, you do not have two halves of a magnet but instead each broken piece will somehow have its own North pole and a South pole. If you take one of those pieces and break it into two again, each of the smaller pieces will have a North pole and a South pole and so on. No matter how small the pieces of the magnet become, each piece will still have a North pole and a South pole, crazy!.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Then in order for us to make use of magnetism in electrical or electronic calculations, it is necessary to define what are the various aspects of magnetism.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><u>The Magnitude of Magnetism</u></span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">We now know that the lines of force or more commonly the magnetic flux around a magnetic material is given the Greek symbol, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Phi</span>, ( <span class="mtxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">Φ</span> ) with the unit of flux being the <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Weber</span>, ( <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Wb</span> ) after Wilhelm Eduard Weber. But the number of lines of force within a given unit area is called the “Flux Density” and since flux ( <span class="mtxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">Φ</span> ) is measured in ( <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Wb</span> ) and area ( <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">A</span> ) in metres squared, ( <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">m<span style="bottom: 0.7em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span> ), flux density is therefore measured in <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Webers/Metre<span style="bottom: 0.7em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span> or ( <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Wb/m<span style="bottom: 0.7em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span> ) and is given the symbol <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">B</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">However, when referring to flux density in magnetism, flux density is given the unit of the <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Tesla</span>after Nikola Tesla so therefore one <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Wb/m<span style="bottom: 0.7em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span> is equal to one Tesla, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">1Wb/m<span style="bottom: 0.7em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span> = 1T</span>. Flux density is proportional to the lines of force and inversely proportional to area so we can define <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Flux Density</span>as:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic Flux Density : </span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="magnetic flux density" height="56" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag4.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Magnetic Flux Density" width="448" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The symbol for magnetic flux density is <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">B</span> and the unit of magnetic flux density is the Tesla, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">T</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="Flux Density Equation" height="57" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag5.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Magnetic Flux Density Equation" width="216" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">It is important to remember that all calculations for flux density are done in the same units, e.g., flux in webers, area in m2 and flux density in Teslas.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetism Example No1</span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The amount of flux present in a round magnetic bar was measured at 0.013 webers. If the material has a diameter of 12cm, calculate the flux density.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The cross sectional area of the magnetic material in m2 is given as:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="magnetism cross section" height="102" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag6.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Cross-sectional Area" width="313" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The magnetic flux is given as 0.013 webers, therefore the flux density can be calculated as:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="flux density" height="75" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag7.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Flux Density" width="400" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">So the flux density is calculated as 1.15 Teslas.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">When dealing with magnetism in electrical circuits it must be remembered that one Tesla is the density of a magnetic field such that a conductor carrying 1 ampere at right angles to the magnetic field experiences a force of one newton-metre length on it and this will be demonstrated in the next tutorial about Electromagnetism.</span></div>
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Magnetism

Electromagnetism is produced when an electrical current flows through a simple conductor such as a piece of wire or cable. A small magnet...

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