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Wi-Fi up to five times faster coming in 2015

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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Wi-Fi up to five times faster coming in 2015</span></div>
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Samsung Electronics has developed a new way of transmitting Wi-Fi data five times faster than was previously possible. The new technology is expected to be available in consumer devices as early as 2015.</div>
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If you've been to a cafe or other public place recently and been frustrated at the slow speed of Wi-Fi, a new breakthrough by Samsung Electronics may soon change that. Researchers at the company have this week achieved the development of 60GHz Wi-Fi allowing transfer rates of 4.6Gbps, or 575MB per second. That is 5.3 times faster than the previous maximum speed for consumer devices (866Mbps, or 108MB per second).</div>
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Today's generation of Wi-Fi uses the 2.4Ghz and 5Ghz areas of the radio spectrum. The 60GHz band is currently unlicensed and offers major potential, but previous attempts to exploit it have failed to send data over significant distances, due to path loss and weak penetration properties. Samsung has overcome these issues through a combination of millimetre-wave circuit design, a high performance modem and wide-coverage beam-forming antenna. This eliminates co-channel interference, regardless of the number of devices using the same network.</div>
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Commercialisation is expected in 2015, with Samsung planning integration into a wide variety of products – including audio visual, medical devices and telecommunications equipment. It will also help to spur the Internet of Things.</div>
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“Samsung prides itself at being of the forefront of technology innovation, and is delighted to have overcome the barriers to the commercialisation of 60GHz millimetre-wave band Wi-Fi technology,” said Paul Templeton, General Manager of Samsung Networks UK. “This breakthrough has opened the door to exciting possibilities for Samsung’s next-generation devices, and has also changed the face of the future development of Wi-Fi technology, promising innovations that were not previously within reach.”</div>
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To give an idea of the speed: a 1GB movie will take less than three seconds to transfer between devices, while uncompressed high-definition videos could easily be streamed from mobile devices to TVs in real-time without any delay.</div>
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Wi-Fi up to five times faster coming in 2015

Wi-Fi up to five times faster coming in 2015 Samsung Electronics has developed a new way of transmitting Wi-Fi data five times faster th...

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Breakthrough in creating DNA-based electrical circuits

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An international team has announced "the most significant breakthrough in a decade" toward developing DNA-based electrical circuits.</div>
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The central technological revolution of the 20th century was the development of computers, leading to the communication and Internet era. The main measure of this evolution has been miniaturisation: making machines smaller. A computer with the memory of the average laptop today was the size of a tennis court in the 1970s. Yet while scientists made great strides in reducing the size of individual components through microelectronics, they have been less successful at reducing the distance between transistors, the main element of our computers. These spaces between transistors have been much more challenging and extremely expensive to miniaturise – an obstacle that limits the future development of computers.<br /><br />Molecular electronics, which uses molecules as building blocks for the fabrication of electronic components, was seen as the ultimate solution to the miniaturisation challenge. To date, however, no one has actually been able to make complex electrical circuits using molecules. The only known molecules that can be pre-designed to self-assemble into complex miniature circuits, which could in turn be used in computers, are DNA molecules. Nevertheless, nobody has so far been able to demonstrate reliably and quantitatively the flow of electrical current through long DNA molecules.<br /><br />Now, an international group led by Prof. Danny Porath, at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, reports reproducible and quantitative measurements of electricity flow through long molecules made of four DNA strands. The research, which could re-ignite interest in the use of DNA-based wires and devices in the development of programmable circuits, appears in the journal <em>Nature Nanotechnology</em> under the title "Long-range charge transport in single G-quadruplex DNA molecules."<br /><br />Prof. Porath is affiliated with the Hebrew University's Institute of Chemistry and its Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. The molecules were produced by the group of Alexander Kotlyar from Tel Aviv University, who has been collaborating with Porath for 15 years. The measurements were performed mainly by Gideon Livshits, a PhD student in the Porath group. The research was carried out in collaboration with groups from Denmark, Spain, the US, Italy<span style="font-size: 12px;"> </span>and Cyprus.<br /><br />According to Prof. Porath, "This research paves the way for implementing DNA-based programmable circuits for molecular electronics, which could lead to a new generation of computer circuits that can be more sophisticated, cheaper and simpler to make."</div>
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Breakthrough in creating DNA-based electrical circuits

An international team has announced "the most significant breakthrough in a decade" toward developing DNA-based electrical circu...

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DARPA circuit achieves speed of 1 terahertz (THz)

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The fastest ever integrated circuit has been announced by DARPA – achieving one terahertz (10<sup>12</sup> Hz), or a trillion cycles per second.</div>
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Guinness World Records has officially recognised DARPA's Terahertz Electronics program for creating the fastest solid-state amplifier integrated circuit ever measured. The ten-stage common-source amplifier operates at a speed of one terahertz (1,000,000,000,000 Hz), or one trillion cycles per second — 150 billion cycles faster than the existing world record of 850 gigahertz set in 2012.</div>
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“This breakthrough could lead to revolutionary technologies such as high-resolution security imaging systems, improved collision-avoidance radar, communications networks with many times the capacity of current systems and spectrometers that could detect potentially dangerous chemicals and explosives with much greater sensitivity,” said Dev Palmer, DARPA program manager.</div>
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Developed by Northrop Grumman Corporation, the Terahertz Monolithic Integrated Circuit (TMIC) exhibits power gains several orders of magnitude beyond the current state of the art, using a super-scaled 25 nanometer gate-length. Gain, which is measured logarithmically in decibels, similar to how earthquake intensity is measured on the Richter scale, describes the ability of an amplifier to increase the power of a signal from the input to the output. The Northrop Grumman TMIC showed a measured gain of nine decibels at 1.0 terahertz and 10 decibels at 1.03 terahertz. By contrast, current smartphone technology operates at one to two gigahertz and wireless networks at 5.7 gigahertz.</div>
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“Gains of six decibels or more start to move this research from the laboratory bench to practical applications — nine decibels of gain is unheard of at terahertz frequencies” said Palmer. “This opens up new possibilities for building terahertz radio circuits.”</div>
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For years, researchers have been looking to exploit the tremendously high-frequency band beginning above 300 gigahertz where the wavelengths are less than one millimetre. The terahertz level has proven to be somewhat elusive though, due to a lack of effective means to generate, detect, process and radiate the necessary high-frequency signals.</div>
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Current electronics using solid-state technologies have largely been unable to access the sub-millimetre band of the electromagnetic spectrum due to insufficient transistor performance. To address the “terahertz gap,” engineers have traditionally used frequency conversion — converting alternating current at one frequency to alternating current at another frequency — to multiply circuit operating frequencies up from millimetre-wave frequencies. This approach, however, restricts the output power of electrical devices and adversely affects signal-to-noise ratio. Frequency conversion also increases device size, weight and power requirements.</div>
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DARPA has made a series of strategic investments in terahertz electronics through its HiFIVE, SWIFT and TFAST programs. Each program has built on the successes of the previous one, providing the foundational research necessary for frequencies to reach the terahertz threshold.</div>
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DARPA circuit achieves speed of 1 terahertz (THz)

The fastest ever integrated circuit has been announced by DARPA – achieving one terahertz (10 12 Hz), or a trillion cycles per second. ...

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Wireless Power Transmission

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<span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #28323a; font-family: 'FS Emeric Light', Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18px;">- Power transmission methods -</span><br />
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: 'FS Emeric Light', Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">In additio</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">n to the capacitive coupling, there are other methods of wireless power transmission, such as electromagnetic induction, magnetic resonance and radiowave.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">(Features of capacitive coupling is </span>here.<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">) </span></span><br />
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<table class="table" style="background-color: white; border-collapse: collapse; border-spacing: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #5b6770; line-height: 22.8571186065674px; margin-bottom: 20px; max-width: 100%; table-layout: fixed; width: 666px;"><thead style="box-sizing: border-box;">
<tr style="box-sizing: border-box;"><th style="background-color: #dce1e5; border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: 'FS Emeric Regular', Verdana, sans-serif; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Power transmittion Method</span></th><th style="background-color: #dce1e5; border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: 'FS Emeric Regular', Verdana, sans-serif; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Image</span></th><th style="background-color: #dce1e5; border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; font-family: 'FS Emeric Regular', Verdana, sans-serif; font-weight: 400; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Overview</span></th></tr>
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<tr style="box-sizing: border-box;"><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Capacitive coupling (Murata)</span></td><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="Capacitive coupling (Murata)" height="85" src="http://www.murata.com/~/media/webrenewal/products/power/wptm/techguide/techguide_img0001.ashx?la=en&h=85&w=150" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: 85px; vertical-align: middle; width: 150px;" width="150" /></span></td><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Method of transmitting power by capacitive coupling from opposing plane electrodes</span></td></tr>
<tr style="box-sizing: border-box;"><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Electromagnetic induction</span></td><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="Electromagnetic induction" height="128" src="http://www.murata.com/~/media/webrenewal/products/power/wptm/techguide/techguide_img0002.ashx?la=en&h=128&w=150" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: 128px; vertical-align: middle; width: 150px;" width="150" /></span></td><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Method of transmitting power by induced current from a magnetic field between opposing coils</span></td></tr>
<tr style="box-sizing: border-box;"><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Magnetic resonance</span></td><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="Magnetic resonance" height="106" src="http://www.murata.com/~/media/webrenewal/products/power/wptm/techguide/techguide_img0003.ashx?la=en&h=106&w=150" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: 106px; vertical-align: middle; width: 150px;" width="150" /></span></td><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Method of transmitting power over a space utilizing resonance phenomenon based on the same principle as electromagnetic induction</span></td></tr>
<tr style="box-sizing: border-box;"><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Radiowave</span></td><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="Radiowave" height="98" src="http://www.murata.com/~/media/webrenewal/products/power/wptm/techguide/techguide_img0004.ashx?la=en" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; vertical-align: middle;" width="150" /></span></td><td style="border: 1px dotted rgb(156, 165, 171); box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.42857; padding: 8px; vertical-align: middle; word-break: normal; word-wrap: break-word;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Power is generated from radiowaves received by an antenna.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #28323a; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" /><br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />- Capacitive coupling wireless power transmission technology -</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">Murata's capacitive coupling wireless power transmission modules have two sets of asymmetric dipoles consisting of active and passive electrodes positioned vertically on the power transmitting and receiving sides.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">Power is transmitted utilizing an induction field generated by coupling the two sets of asymmetric dipoles.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">This configuration realizes wireless power transmission with high position freedom and efficiency.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">Murata holds the patent for this configuration. (Patent #: PCT/FR2006/000614).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="Basic configuration for the capacitive coupling power transmission system" src="http://www.murata.com/~/media/webrenewal/products/power/wptm/techguide/techguide_img0005.ashx?la=en&h=348&w=626" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: 348px; vertical-align: middle; width: 626px;" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Basic configuration for the capacitive coupling power transmission system</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">Below is a block diagram showing the entire system, which makes use of this technology.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">The power transmitting side consists of a power transmitting module and a power transmitting electrode, and the power receiving side consists of a power receiving electrode, a power receiving module and a DC-DC converter.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">The power transmitting module includes a power supply circuit, which makes use of Murata's power supply design technology, and a control circuit to provide safety.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">The power converted to AC current by the power transmitting module is transmitted to the power receiving side via a capacitor consisting of a power transmitting electrode and a power receiving electrode.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">A rectifying circuit and a voltage conversion circuit are built into the power receiving side to provide stable DC voltage to batteries and equipment.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Block diagram</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">Voltage is converted during power transmission in capacitive coupling. An example of voltage transition is shown below. The wireless power transmission (capacitive coupling) area is high-voltage but small-current; therefore, there is no risk of heat generation.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">Murata's own high-voltage safety measures are described below.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="Block diagram/Transition of voltage" height="400" src="http://www.murata.com/~/media/webrenewal/products/power/wptm/techguide/techguide_img0007.ashx?la=en&h=400&w=640" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; height: 400px; vertical-align: middle; width: 640px;" width="640" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Block diagram/Transition of voltage</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;">Murata's own safety measures are applied to high voltage at the wireless power transmission area providing excellent protection.</span><br />
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<ul style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #5b6770; line-height: 22.8571186065674px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 0px;">
<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Power transmitting modules feature the ability to detect load and transition.</span></li>
<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">With the above feature, power transmission is halted if conditions such as the absence of equipment being charged or fully-charged battery are detected.</span></li>
<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">When abnormal conditions such as contact by a metal object other than equipment to be charged or a human body is detected, power transmission is also halted.</span></li>
<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">If electric discharge occurs, power transmission is halted to prevent smoke emission and fire.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #5b6770; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;" /></span>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #5b6770; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;"> Murata offers support for structural design around electrodes to ensure the safety of equipment introducing our modules. Here are the areas of support we offer.</span><br />
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<ul style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #5b6770; line-height: 22.8571186065674px; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-top: 0px;">
<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">We insulate electrode areas.</span></li>
<li style="box-sizing: border-box;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">We help with structural design to completely encase electrode areas.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #5b6770; line-height: 22.8571186065674px;" /></span>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="Murata's own safety measures are applied to high voltage at the wireless power transmission area providing excellent protection." height="179" src="http://www.murata.com/~/media/webrenewal/products/power/wptm/techguide/techguide_img0008.ashx?la=en" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #5b6770; line-height: 22.8571186065674px; vertical-align: middle;" width="324" /></span></div>

Wireless Power Transmission

- Power transmission methods - In additio n to the capacitive coupling, there are other methods of wireless power transmission, such as e...

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Google Glass - How worth is it ?

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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Explorer Edition upgrades to 2GB of RAM in the US and UK. Is it worth the price now?</span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Google Glass is the controversial wearable that still its sci-looking beta testers turning heads and being peppered with questions a year and a half after the first invites started rolling out to developers. How does it work? What does it feel like? And, of course the inevitable, well, can I try it?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The increasing number of Google Glass invites has led to Project Glass being open to everyone in the US and now the UK, so curious, tech-savvy early adopters can answer most of these questions on their own.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It a little easier to say "yes" to Glass now that it's been upgraded with more memory and new apps that came out in time for Google IO. There's a speedier 2GB of RAM on board instead of 1GB and 12 new apps including Shazam and Live Stream. The Google Glass app list is officially over the 50 apps hump.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But there's one query all prospective Glass owners all struggling with right now at checkout: is Google Glass worth it?</span></div>
<mediainsert caption="null" height="315" mediatype="YouTube" src="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p4vyBswDQvg" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #2b2b2b; line-height: 25px;" width="420"><span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;"><b>YouTube : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p4vyBswDQvg</b></span></mediainsert></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To answer that burning question, I turned a critical eye to Google's wearable computer and tested its Explorer Edition of Google Glass for nine months. It also upgraded to the brand new 2GB model.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With the sound of my voice, I took hands-free photos by saying "Okay Glass, take a picture." I instructed it to upload the resulting point-of-view image to Twitter and Facebook and attached a caption, all with voice commands.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I saw flight information automatically beam to my eye with a gentle Google Now reminder the day before traveling. The weather for both my departure and destination cities, and directions to the airport were already being provided by this instinctual software. All of this data appeared in the top right corner of my vision, all without the need to take out my smartphone.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Google has continued to make the complicated ownership decision easier by adding more to its Explorer Edition heads-up display. In addition to the new 2GB version, an update late last year saw a tweaked form factor that made prescription glasses compatible with attachable frames.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Google has even been throwing in a free pair of frames or premium shades with all new orders since mid-April. Moreover, new apps and updates to the linear operating system that weren't available at launch make the current Google Glass Explorer Edition a tempting buy.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Still, this new Project Glass model is better at addition than subtraction. While features have been added, the price hasn't dropped in a year. At $1,500 (£1,000, about AU$1,589) plus tax, Google's experimental wearable is exorbitantly priced for the average person. It's also best if you're an Android, not an Apple person.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Compatibility with the iPhone has improved thanks to the launch of an iOS MyGlass app and the ability to read text messages, but it stops short of tapping into Glass' hands-free SMS response capabilities. Maps navigation also requires MyGlass to be open on the iPhone, not in the background. All of these features are missing for Windows Phone 8 users entirely, though technically any Bluetooth phone can offer Glass tethered data with a personal hotspot enabled.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Google Glass is very much a prototype, even after more than 18 months of being in the hands and on the faces of tens of thousands of beta testers.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But that's partly why this out-of-reach, futuristic-looking curiosity is so fascinating, despite, or possibly because of the massive cost to your Google Wallet (that's actually how you <em style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">have to</em> pay for Google Glass). Peoples' mind=blown reaction, more so than snapping photos hands-free and getting directions that turn with your head, makes whomever is donning Google Glass a walking wonder.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">How to get Google Glass</span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Google undoubtedly wanted Glass in the hands of developers who will make the experience better, more so than curious individuals who want it for personal use. Therefore, developers were the first to qualify for Google Glass invites.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now it's for sale to anyone living in the US and UK. Google threw Project Glass into open enrollment for 24 hours on April 15 and then permanently made it available a month later. Good things come to those who wait, too. All new Google Glass models come with free frames for prescription glasses or a free sunglasses shade attachment that typically costs $225 (£175, about AU$239).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Signing up for the normal Google Glass waitlist in June of 2013 after Google IO gave me access to an Explorer Edition beta code in November, while my friend who registered in December received an invite less than three weeks in January. That alone shows how much easier it became to receive an invitation.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Strict rules still limit who can ultimately take advantage of the invite code and purchase a prototype. For example, you must be 18 years old and a US or UK resident, so adults living in the other parts of Europe or Australia aren't eligible. These age and country-specific rules are still in place.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">The fit</span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Google Glass now ships to US and UK addresses, though the company still encourages beta testers to pick it up in person at its New York, San Francisco or Los Angeles offices. In the UK, "base camp" is in King's Cross, London. But across the pond in LA, specifically Venice Beach, is where I went for my "fitting experience" with a friendly Glass guide named Frank.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Google employee helped with my Google Glass unboxing, adjusted the nose pads, tweaked the delicate nose stems and shaped the malleable titanium head band until it didn't sit so crooked on my face.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Within ten minutes it looked perfect, or at least as perfect as one can appear with a wearable computer sitting on their face.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">The look</span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Though pliable, the titanium head band remains durable as it stretches from ear to ear. It runs alongside a plastic casing that hides Glass' key components and gives it an overall clean look. This subtle style makes the exposed parts like the camera lens in the front stand out even more - for better or worse.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Everyone's attention is also immediately drawn to the adjacent cube-shaped glass prism that sits above the right eye. It has an acceptable 640 x 360 resolution and hangs just out of the way of the wearer's line of sight. For the wearer, this personalized display acts as a much bigger screen, one that's equivalent to a 25-inch HDTV sitting eight feet away.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Google Glass dimensions are 5.25-inches at its widest point and 8-inches at its longest point. It's too long and wide to fit into my pocket, even though I've been able to carry a Nexus 7 tablet in my jeans' back pocket with a little squeeze.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Society has banned fanny packs and the titanium head band doesn't collapse, so storage options are limited. When out and about it's either on my face or in the complementary case, which I stow in a backpack. There's no in-between.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The new Google Glass is almost indistinguishable from its predecessor, and the fact that it comes in the same colors doesn't help you tell them apart. The options are black, orange, gray, white and blue. Or, as the Glass guides insisted: charcoal, tangerine, shale, cotton and sky.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Charcoal and cotton, the two non-color colors, appear to be the most popular, as they were initially sold out when I first entered my invite code to buy Google Glass. Luckily, before my seven-day invite expired, both options became available and I chose white. The choice made online actually didn't matter until I got to the on-site appointment. I was given one last chance to switch colors during the moment of truth.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The glaring exception to Glass' svelte design is the battery that rests behind the right ear and juts out rather noticeably. It's too big, yet it's not big enough for a full day's charge. Battery performance did improve with the Android KitKat update in April, but more power from this energy-eating wearable is still a priority of Explorers.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">The feel</span></h3>
<div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #2b2b2b; font-stretch: inherit; line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 15px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Even with the bulkiness of the battery and durable frame, Google Glass is extremely lightweight and comfortable resting on my face. It weights just 42 grams (1.48 oz) and because everything, including the screen, is just out of my line of sight I often forget I'm wearing it.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At first, Google Glass did give me slight headaches as I strained my right eye to focus on the tiny prism in the top right corner of my vision. The team at the Venice headquarters did forewarn me about temporary Google Glass headaches, instructing me not to use Glass for more than a few hours the first couple of days. It's incredibly unnatural to have just one eye focus on a screen while the other goes without use, but my eyes and brain adjusted to the phenomenon in a few days to the point where it's now intuitive.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Like a modern smartphone, there are few physical buttons and ports on Google Glass. That's because most of the interaction is done via a long 3.25-inch touchpad on the right side. Underneath the touchpad is a micro USB port for charging the device and on the top is a camera button that's great for quick snaps in noisy environments.</span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 23.0999984741211px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The most discreet button is tucked away on the inside on the touchpad and near the temple. Giving it a light press turns Google Glass on and powers up the all-important apps.</span></span></div>
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Google Glass - How worth is it ?

Explorer Edition upgrades to 2GB of RAM in the US and UK. Is it worth the price now? Google Glass is the controversial wearable that ...

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DIY Electronics - LED display digital Voltmeter

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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Copyright of this circuit belongs to smart kit electronics. In this page we will use this circuit to discuss for improvements and we will introduce some changes based on original schematic.</span><br />
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<strong><span style="color: #990000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">General Description</span></strong><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">This is an easy to build, but nevertheless very accurate and useful digital voltmeter. It has been designed as a panel meter and can be used in DC power supplies or anywhere else it is necessary to have an accurate indication of the voltage present. The circuit employs the ADC (Analogue to Digital Converter) I.C. CL7107 made by INTERSIL. This IC incorporates in a 40 pin case all the circuitry necessary to convert an analogue signal to digital and can drive a series of four seven segment LED displays directly. The circuits built into the IC are an analogue to digital converter, a comparator, a clock, a decoder and a seven segment LED display driver. The circuit as it is described here can display any DC voltage in the range of 0-1999 Volts.</span><br />
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<strong><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Technical Specifications - Characteristics</span></strong><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Supply Voltage: ............. +/- 5 V (Symmetrical)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Power requirements: ..... 200 mA (maximum)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Measuring range: .......... +/- 0-1,999 VDC in four ranges</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Accuracy: ....................... 0.1 %</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">FEATURES</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Small size</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Easy construction</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Low cost.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Simple adjustment.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Easy to read from a distance.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Few external components.</span><br />
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<strong><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">How it Works</span></strong><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">In order to understand the principle of operation of the circuit it is necessary to explain how the ADC IC works. This IC has the following very important features:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Great accuracy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- It is not affected by noise.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- No need for a sample and hold circuit.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- It has a built-in clock.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- It has no need for high accuracy external components.</span><br />
<a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/schematic.gif"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/schematic.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></span></a><br />
<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>Schematic (fixed 22-2-04)</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/7seg.gif"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/7seg.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span><br />
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<b style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">7-segment display pinout MAN6960</b><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">An Analogue to Digital Converter, (ADC from now on) is better known as a dual slope converter or integrating converter. This type of converter is generally preferred over other types as it offers accuracy, simplicity in design and a relative indifference to noise which makes it very reliable. The operation of the circuit is better understood if it is described in two stages. During the first stage and for a given period the input voltage is integrated, and in the output of the integrator at the end of this period, there is a voltage which is directly proportional to the input voltage. At the end of the preset period the integrator is fed with an internal reference voltage and the output of the circuit is gradually reduced until it reaches the level of the zero reference voltage. This second phase is known as the negative slope period and its duration depends on the output of the integrator in the first period. As the duration of the first operation is fixed and the length of the second is variable it is possible to compare the two and this way the input voltage is in fact compared to the internal reference voltage and the result is coded and is send to the display.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/image_3.jpg"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/image_3.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>Back side :-</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">All this sounds quite easy but it is in fact a series of very complex operations which are all made by the ADC IC with the help of a few external components which are used to configure the circuit for the job. In detail the circuit works as follows. The voltage to be measured is applied across points 1 and 2 of the circuit and through the circuit R3, R4 and C4 is finally applied to pins 30 and 31 of the IC. These are the input of the IC as you can see from its diagram. (IN HIGH & IN LOW respectively). The resistor R1 together with C1 are used to set the frequency of the internal oscillator (clock) which is set at about 48 Hz. At this clock rate there are about three different readings per second. The capacitor C2 which is connected between pins 33 and 34 of the IC has been selected to compensate for the error caused by the internal reference voltage and also keeps the display steady. The capacitor C3 and the resistor R5 are together the circuit that does the integration of the input voltage and at the same time prevent any division of the input voltage making the circuit faster and more reliable as the possibility of error is greatly reduced. The capacitor C5 forces the instrument to display zero when there is no voltage at its input. The resistor R2 together with P1 are used to adjust the instrument during set-up so that it displays zero when the input is zero. The resistor R6 controls the current that is allowed to flow through the displays so that there is sufficient brightness with out damaging them. The IC as we have already mentioned above is capable to drive four common anode LED displays. The three rightmost displays are connected so that they can display all the numbers from 0 to 9 while the first from the left can only display the number 1 and when the voltage is negative the «-« sign. The whole circuit operates from a symmetrical ρ 5 VDC supply which is applied at pins 1 (+5 V), 21 (0 V) and 26 (-5 V) of the IC.</span><br />
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<strong><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Construction</span></strong><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">First of all let us consider a few basics in building electronic circuits on a printed circuit board. The board is made of a thin insulating material clad with a thin layer of conductive copper that is shaped in such a way as to form the necessary conductors between the various components of the circuit. The use of a properly designed printed circuit board is very desirable as it speeds construction up considerably and reduces the possibility of making errors. To protect the board during storage from oxidation and assure it gets to you in perfect condition the copper is tinned during manufacturing and covered with a special varnish that protects it from getting oxidised and also makes soldering easier.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Soldering the components to the board is the only way to build your circuit and from the way you do it depends greatly your success or failure. This work is not very difficult and if you stick to a few rules you should have no problems. The soldering iron that you use must be light and its power should not exceed the 25 Watts. The tip should be fine and must be kept clean at all times. For this purpose come very handy specially made sponges that are kept wet and from time to time you can wipe the hot tip on them to remove all the residues that tend to accumulate on it.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">DO NOT file or sandpaper a dirty or worn out tip. If the tip cannot be cleaned, replace it. There are many different types of solder in the market and you should choose a good quality one that contains the necessary flux in its core, to assure a perfect joint every time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">DO NOT use soldering flux apart from that which is already included in your solder. Too much flux can cause many problems and is one of the main causes of circuit malfunction. If nevertheless you have to use extra flux, as it is the case when you have to tin copper wires, clean it very thoroughly after you finish your work.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">In order to solder a component correctly you should do the following:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Clean the component leads with a small piece of emery paper.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Bend them at the correct distance from the component’s body and insert the component in its place on the board.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- You may find sometimes a component with heavier gauge leads than usual, that are too thick to enter in the holes of the p.c. board. In this case use a mini drill to enlarge the holes slightly. Do not make the holes too large as this is going to make soldering difficult afterwards.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/layout_full.jpg"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/layout_full.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>Parts placement</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/pcb_full.gif"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/pcb_full.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">PCB dimensions: 77,6mm x 44,18mm or scale it at 35%</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Take the hot iron and place its tip on the component lead while holding the end of the solder wire at the point where the lead emerges from the board. The iron tip must touch the lead slightly above the p.c. board.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- When the solder starts to melt and flow wait till it covers evenly the area around the hole and the flux boils and gets out from underneath the solder. The whole operation should not take more than 5 seconds. Remove the iron and allow the solder to cool naturally without blowing on it or moving the component. If everything was done properly the surface of the joint must have a bright metallic finish and its edges should be smoothly ended on the component lead and the board track. If the solder looks dull, cracked, or has the shape of a blob then you have made a dry joint and you should remove the solder (with a pump, or a solder wick) and redo it.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Take care not to overheat the tracks as it is very easy to lift them from the board and break them.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- When you are soldering a sensitive component it is good practice to hold the lead from the component side of the board with a pair of long-nose pliers to divert any heat that could possibly damage the component.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Make sure that you do not use more solder than it is necessary as you are running the risk of short-circuiting adjacent tracks on the board, especially if they are very close together.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- When you finish your work, cut off the excess of the component leads and clean the board thoroughly with a suitable solvent to remove all flux residues that may still remain on it.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/image_1.jpg"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/image_1.jpg" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">As it is recommended start working by identifying the components and separating them in groups. There are two points in the construction of this project that you should observe:</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">First of all the display IC’s are placed from the copper side of the board and second the jumper connection which is marked by a dashed line on the component side at the same place where the displays are located is not a single jumper but it should be changed according to the use of the instrument. This jumper is used to control the decimal point of the display.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">If you are going to use the instrument for only one range you can make the jumper connection between the rightmost hole on the board and the one corresponding to the desired position for the decimal point for your particular application. If you are planning to use the voltmeter in different ranges you should use a single pole three position switch to shift the decimal point to the correct place for the range of measurement selected. (This switch could preferably be combined with the switch that is used to actually change the sensitivity of the instrument).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Apart from this consideration, and the fact that the small size of the board and the great number of joints on it which calls for a very fine tipped soldering iron, the construction of the project is very straightforward.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Insert the IC socket and solder it in place, solder the pins, continue with the resistors the capacitors and the multi-turn trimmer P1. Turn the board over and very carefully solder the display IC’s from the copper side of the board. Remember to inspect the joints of the base of the IC as one row will be covered by the displays and will be impossible to see any mistake that you may have made after you have soldered the displays into place.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The value of R3 controls in fact the range of measurement of the voltmeter and if you provide for some means to switch different resistors in its place you can use the instrument over a range of voltages.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>For the replacement resistors follow the table below:</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">0 - 2 V ............ R3 = 0 ohm 1%</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">0 - 20 V ........... R3 = 1.2 Kohm 1%</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">0 - 200 V .......... R3 = 12 Kohm 1%</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">0 - 2000 V ......... R3 = 120 Kohm 1%</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">When you have finished all the soldering on the board and you are sure that everything is OK you can insert the IC in its place. The IC is CMOS and is very sensitive to static electricity. It comes wrapped in aluminium foil to protect it from static discharges and it should be handled with great care to avoid damaging it. Try to avoid touching its pins with your hands and keep the circuit and your body at ground potential when you insert it in its place.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Connect the circuit to a suitable power supply ρ 5 VDC and turn the supply on. The displays should light immediately and should form a number. Short circuit the input (0 V) and adjust the trimmer P1 until the display indicates exactly «0».</span><br />
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<strong><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Parts</span></strong><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R1 180k</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R2 22k</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R3 12k</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R4 1M</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R5 470k</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">R6 560 Ohm</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">C1 100pF</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">C2, C6, C7 100nF</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">C3 47nF</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">C4 10nF</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">C5 220nF</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">P1 20k trimmer multi turn</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">U1 ICL 7107</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">LD1,2,3,4 MAN 6960 common anode led displays</span><br />
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<strong><span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">If it does not work</span></strong><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Check your work for possible dry joints, bridges across adjacent tracks or soldering flux residues that usually cause problems.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Check again all the external connections to and from the circuit to see if there is a mistake there.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- See that there are no components missing or inserted in the wrong places.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Make sure that all the polarised components have been soldered the right way round. - Make sure the supply has the correct voltage and is connected the right way round to your circuit.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">- Check your project for faulty or damaged components.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Sample Power supply 1</span><br />
<a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/bigs/dvm_pw.gif"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/dvm_pw.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></span></a><br />
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>Sample Power Supply 2</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/215/dvm_pw1.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></span></div>
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DIY Electronics - LED display digital Voltmeter

front side Copyright of this circuit belongs to smart kit electronics. In this page we will use this circuit to discuss for improvemen...

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DIY Electronics - Metal Detector

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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><strong>Circuit diagram</strong></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/266/bigs/metal_detector.gif"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/266/metal_detector.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The circuit described here is that of a metal detector. The opera- tion of the circuit is based on superheterodyning principle which is commonly used in superhet receivers. The circuit utilises two RF oscillators. The frequencies of both oscillators are fixed at 5.5 MHz. The first RF oscillator comprises transistor T1 (BF 494) and a 5.5MHz ceramic filter commonly used in TV sound-IF section. The second oscillator is a Colpitt’s oscillator realised with the help of transistor T3 (BF494) and inductor L1 (whose construction details follow) shunted by trimmer capacitor VC1. These two oscillators’ frequencies (say Fx and Fy) are mixed in the mixer transistor T2 (another BF 494) and the difference or the beat frequency (Fx-Fy) output from collector of transistor T2 is connected to detector stage comprising diodes D1 and D2 (both OA 79). The output is a pulsating DC which is passed through a low-pass filter realised with the help of a 10k resistor R12 and two 15nF capacitors C6 and C10. It is then passed to AF amplifier IC1 (2822M) via volume</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br />control VR1 and the output is fed to an 8-ohm/1W speaker. The inductor L1 can be constructed using 15 turns of 25SWG wire on a 10cm (4-inch) diameter air-core former and then cementing it with insulating varnish. For proper operation of the circuit it is critical that frequencies of both the oscillators are the same so as to obtain zero beat in the absence of any metal in the near vicinity of the circuit. The alignment of oscillator 2 (to match oscillator 1 frequency) can be done with the help of trimmer capacitor VC1. When the two frequencies are equal, the beat frequency is zero, i.e. beat frquency=Fx-Fy=0, and thus there is no sound from the loudspeaker. When search coil L1 passes over metal, the metal changes its inductance, thereby changing the second oscillator’s frequency. So now Fx-Fy is not zero and the loudspeaker sounds. Thus one is able to detect presence of metal.</span></div>
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DIY Electronics - Metal Detector

Circuit diagram The circuit described here is that of a metal detector. The opera- tion of the circuit is based on superheterodyning...

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DIY Electronics - Electromagnetic field detector

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<strong><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Circuit diagram</span></strong></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/228/bigs/emmeter.gif"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/228/emmeter.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span></div>
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<strong><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Description:</span></strong></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b>This lovely circuit is a real gem! Easy to assemble and more sensitive than many commercial devices available. It's based around an LF351 low-noise operational amplifier and a 1mF choke acting as the sensor. Unlike most other simple EMF detectors, this one has a meter output for accurate reading, but alternatively, you can also roughly estimate the frequency of the field by plugging in headphones. It can detect any field from 50Hz to 100kHz, making it highly versatile and a worthwhile addition to any hobbyist's workbench.</span></div>
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<strong><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></strong></div>
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<strong><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Problems:</span></strong></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">I just couldn't find any.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><strong>Possible uses:</strong><br />Find out how far electromagnetic fields extend in your room, house, office...</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Are you a ghost hunter? Then this is the circuit that you've been waiting for! Since it has been observed that appearance of a ghost tends to disturb the EMF, you can now detect any such changes with this little detector.</span></div>
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DIY Electronics - Electromagnetic field detector

Circuit diagram Description: This lovely circuit is a real gem! Easy to assemble and more sensitive than many commercial devic...

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DIY Electronics - Capacitance Meter

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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><strong>Circuit diagram</strong></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b><br /></b><a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/207/bigs/cir_msr012.gif"><img alt="" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/207/cir_msr012.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="color: #cc0000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b>Position Range</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br />a 1 uf<br />b 100 nf<br />c 10 nf<br />d 1 nf<br />e 100 pf</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br />Use X10 switch to measure up 10uf.<br />Use X0.5 switch for better readings on low values.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">This project is more complex than the others described earlier. However, when finished, you will have an instrument capable of measuring all but the largest capacitors used in radio circuits. Unlike variable resistors, most variable capacitors are not marked with their values. As well, the markings of capacitors from salvaged equipment often rub off. By being able to measure these unmarked components, this project will prove useful to the constructor, vintage radio enthusiast or antenna experimenter.<br />The common 555 timer IC forms the heart of the circuit (Figure Three). Its function is to charge the unknown capacitor (Cx) to a fixed voltage. The capacitor is then discharged into the meter circuit. The meter measures the current being drawn through the 47 ohm resistor. The 555 repeats the process several times a second, so that the meter needle remains steady.<br />The deflection on the meter is directly proportional to the value of the unknown capacitor. This means that the scale is linear, like the voltage and current ranges on an analogue multimeter.<br />The meter has five ranges, from 100pF to 1uF, selected by a five position two pole switch. In addition, there is a x10 switch for measuring higher values and a divide-by-two facility to allow a better indication on the meter where the capacitor being measured is just above 100, 1000pF, 0.01, 0.1 or 1 uF.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br />Component values are critical. For best accuracy, it is desirable that the nine resistors wired to the Range switch have a 2% tolerance. If 0A47 diodes are not available, try OA91 or OA95 germanium diodes instead. Construct the meter in a plastic box; one that is about the size of your multimeter but deeper is ideal. The meter movement should as large as your budget allows; you will be using it to indicate exact values. A round 70mm-diameter movement salvaged from a piece of electronic equipment was used in the prototype. The meter you buy will have a scale of 0 to 50 microamps. This scale needs to be converted to read 0 to 100 (ie 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 instead of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50). Use of white correction fluid or small pieces of paper will help here.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br />The components can be mounted on a piece of matrix board or printed circuit board. Use a socket for the IC should replacement ever be needed. Keep wires short to minimise stray capacitance; stray capacitance reduces accuracy.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br />Calibrating the completed meter can be done in conjunction with a ready-built capacitance meter. Failing this, a selection of capacitors of known value, as measured on a laboratory meter, could be used. If neither of these options are available, simply buy several capacitors of the same value and use the one which is nearest the average as your standard reference. Use several standards to verify accuracy on all ranges.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br />To calibrate, disable both the x10 and divide-by-two functions (ie both switches open). Then connect one of your reference capacitors and switch to an appropriate range. Vary the setting of the 47k trimpot until the meter is reading the exact value of the capacitor. Then switch in the divide-by-two function. This should change the reading on the meter. Adjust the 10k trimpot so that the needle shows exactly twice the original reading. For example, if you used a 0.01 uF reference, and the meter read 10 on the 0.1 uF range, it should now read 20. Now switch out the divide-by-two function.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br />If you are not doing so already, change to a reference with a value equal to one of the ranges (eg 1000pF, 0.01uF, 0.1uF etc). Switch to the range equal to that value (ie the meter reads full-scale (100) when that capacitor is being measured. Switching in the x10 function should cause the meter indication to drop significantly. Adjust the 470 ohm trimpot so that the meter reads 10. Move down one range (eg from 0.01uF to 1000pF). The meter should read 100 again. If it does not, vary the 470 ohm trimpot until it does. That completes the calibration of the capacitance meter. Now try measuring other components to confirm that the measurements are reasonable.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br />With care, an accuracy of five percent or better should be possible on most ranges.</span></div>
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DIY Electronics - Capacitance Meter

Circuit diagram Position Range a 1 uf b 100 nf c 10 nf d 1 nf e 100 pf Use X10 switch to measure up 10uf. Use X0.5 switch for be...

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DIY Electronics - Simple but reliable car battery tester

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<a href="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/48/bigs/carbatterytester.gif"><img alt="" height="480" src="http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/projects/48/carbatterytester.gif" style="border: 1px solid rgb(212, 127, 0); padding: 2px;" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">This circuit uses the popular and easy to find LM3914 IC. This IC is very simple to drive, needs no voltage regulators (it has a built in voltage regulator) and can be powered from almost every source.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">This circuit is very easy to explain:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">When the test button is pressed, the Car battery voltage is feed into a high impedance voltage divider. His purpose is to divide 12V to 1,25V (or lower values to lower values). This solution is better than letting the internal voltage regulator set the 12V sample voltage to be feed into the internal voltage divider simply because it cannot regulate 12V when the voltage drops lower (linear regulators only step down). Simply wiring with no adjust, the regulator provides stable 1,25V which is fed into the precision internal resistor cascade to generate sample voltages for the internal comparators. Anyway the default setting let you to measure voltages between 8 and 12V but you can measure even from 0V to 12V setting the offset trimmer to 0 (but i think that under 9 volt your car would not start). There is a smoothing capacitor (4700uF 16V) it is used to adsorb EMF noise produced from the ignition coil if you are measuring the battery during the engine working. Diesel engines would not need it, but I'm not sure. If you like more a point graph rather than a bar graph simply disconnect pin 9 on the IC (MODE) from power.<br />The calculations are simple (default)<br />For the first comparator the voltage is : 0,833 V corresponding to 8 V<br />* * * * * voltage is : 0,875 V corresponding to 8,4 V<br />for the last comparator the voltage is : 1,25 V corresponding to 12 V<br />Have fun, learn and don't let you car battery discharge... ;-)</span></div>
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DIY Electronics - Simple but reliable car battery tester

Circuit diagram This circuit uses the popular and easy to find LM3914 IC. This IC is very simple to drive, needs no voltage regulat...

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Magnetism

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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box;">Electromagnetism</span> is produced when an electrical current flows through a simple conductor such as a piece of wire or cable. A small magnetic field is created around the conductor with the direction of this magnetic field with regards to its “North” and “South” poles being determined by the direction of the current flowing through the conductor.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-Y-MrhdOUrVjwKi1LpPEAmMBh0z3QV9G08jYZsjEu-6qO7UmWi3gpBxLq-pweP7xNL1mwKI_C2xfo0HXevjJL4xVn9BT9E171vxiCPeZCFibfVIao3mXJvI9UzRzfRi4cAVaMYkPndQ2n/s1600/magnetism.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="254" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-Y-MrhdOUrVjwKi1LpPEAmMBh0z3QV9G08jYZsjEu-6qO7UmWi3gpBxLq-pweP7xNL1mwKI_C2xfo0HXevjJL4xVn9BT9E171vxiCPeZCFibfVIao3mXJvI9UzRzfRi4cAVaMYkPndQ2n/s1600/magnetism.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Magnetism</span> plays an important role in Electrical and Electronic Engineering because without it components such as relays, solenoids, inductors, chokes, coils, loudspeakers, motors, generators, transformers, and electricity meters etc, would not work if magnetism did not exist.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Then every coil of wire uses the effect of electromagnetism when an electrical current flows through it. But before we can look at <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Magnetism</span> and especially <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Electromagnetism</span> in more detail we need to remember back to our physics classes of how magnets and magnetism works.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><u>The Nature of Magnetism</u></span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnets can be found in a natural state in the form of a magnetic ore, with the two main types being <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Magnetite</span> also called “iron oxide”, ( FE<span style="bottom: -0.3em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">3</span>O<span style="bottom: -0.3em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">4</span> ) and <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Lodestone</span>, also called “leading stone”. If these two natural magnets are suspended from a piece of string, they will take up a position in-line with the Earth’s magnetic field always pointing north.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">A good example of this effect is the needle of a compass. For most practical applications these natural occurring magnets can be disregarded as their magnetism is very low and because nowadays, man-made artificial magnets can be produced in many different shapes, sizes and magnetic strengths.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">There are basically two forms of magnetism, “Permanent Magnets” and “Temporary Magnets”, with the type being used dependant upon its application. There are many different types of materials available to make magnets such as iron, nickel, nickel alloys, chromium and cobalt and in their natural state some of these elements such as nickel and cobalt show very poor magnetic quantities on their own.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">However, when mixed or “alloyed” together with other materials such as iron or aluminium peroxide they become very strong magnets producing unusual names such as “alcomax”, “hycomax”, “alni” and “alnico”.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic material in the non-magnetic state has its molecular structure in the form of loose magnetic chains or individual tiny magnets loosely arranged in a random pattern. The overall effect of this type of arrangement results in zero or very weak magnetism as this haphazard arrangement of each molecular magnet tends to neutralise its neighbour.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">When the material is <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Magnetised</span> this random arrangement of the molecules changes and the tiny unaligned and random molecular magnets become “lined-up” in such a way that they produce a series magnetic arrangement. This idea of the molecular alignment of ferromagnetic materials is known as <b style="box-sizing: border-box;">Weber’s Theory</b> and is illustrated below.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic Molecule Alignment of a Piece of Iron and a Magnet</span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="magnetic molecules" height="141" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag1.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Loose and Ordered Magnetic Molecules" width="447" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Weber’s theory is based on the fact that all atoms have magnetic properties due to the spinning action of the atoms electrons. Groups of atoms join together so that their magnetic fields are all rotating in the same direction. Magnetic materials are composed of groups of tiny magnets at a molecular level around the atoms, and a magnetised material will have most of its tiny magnets lined up in one direction only to produce a north pole in one direction and a south pole in the other direction.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Likewise, a material that has its tiny molecular magnets pointing in all directions will have its molecular magnets neutralised by its neighbouring magnet, thereby neutralising any magnetic effect. These areas of molecular magnets are called “domains”.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Any magnetic material will produce a magnetic field itself which depends on the degree of alignment of magnetic domains in the material set up by orbital and spinning electrons. This degree of alignment can be specified by a quantity known as magnetisation, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">M</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In an unmagnetised material, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">M = 0</span>, but some of the domains remain aligned over small regions in the material once the magnetic field is removed. The effect of applying a magnetising force to the material is to align some of the domains to produce a non-zero magnetisation value.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Once the magnetising force has been removed, the magnetism within the material will either remain or decay away quiet quickly depending on the magnetic material being used. This ability of a material to retain its magnetism is called <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Retentivity</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Materials which are required to retain their magnetism will have a fairly high retentivity and as such are used to make permanent magnets, while those materials required to loose their magnetism quickly such as soft iron cores for relays and solenoids will have a very low retentivity.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><u>Magnetic Flux</u></span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">All magnets, no matter what their shape, have two regions called magnetic poles with the magnetism both in and around a magnetic circuit producing a definite chain of organised and balanced pattern of invisible lines of flux around it. These lines of flux are collectively referred to as the “magnetic field” of the magnet. The shape of this magnetic field is more intense in some parts than others with the area of the magnet that has the greatest magnetism being called “poles”. At each end of a magnet is a pole.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">These lines of flux (called a vector field) can not be seen by the naked eye, but they can be seen visually by using iron fillings sprinkled onto a sheet of paper or by using a small compass to trace them out. Magnetic poles are always present in pairs, there is always a region of the magnet called the <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">North-pole</span> and there is always an opposite region called the <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">South-pole</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic fields are always shown visually as lines of force that give a definite pole at each end of the material where the flux lines are more dense and concentrated. The lines which go to make up a magnetic field showing the direction and intensity are called <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Lines of Force</span> or more commonly “Magnetic Flux” and are given the Greek symbol, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Phi</span> ( <span class="mtxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">Φ</span> ) as shown below.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of Force from a Bar Magnets Magnetic Field</span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="lines of magnetic force" height="292" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag2.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Lines of Magnetic Force" width="289" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> <span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;">As shown above, the magnetic field is strongest near to the poles of the magnet were the lines of flux are more closely spaced. The general direction for the magnetic flux flow is from the</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> </span><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: center;">North</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;">( </span><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: center;">N</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> ) to the</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> </span><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: center;">South</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;">( </span><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: center;">S</span><span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;"> ) pole. In addition, these magnetic lines form closed loops that leave at the north pole of the magnet and enter at the south pole. Magnetic poles are always in pairs.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">However, magnetic flux does not actually flow from the north to the south pole or flow anywhere for that matter as magnetic flux is a static region around a magnet in which the magnetic force exists. In other words magnetic flux does not flow or move it is just there and is not influenced by gravity. Some important facts emerge when plotting lines of force:</span></div>
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<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">NEVER</span> cross.</span></li>
<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force are <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">CONTINUOUS</span>.</span></li>
<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force always form individual <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">CLOSED LOOPS</span> around the magnet.</span></li>
<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force have a definite <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">DIRECTION</span> from North to South.</span></li>
<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force that are close together indicate a <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">STRONG</span> magnetic field.</span></li>
<li class="adv" style="background: url(http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/themes/electronics_tutorials/images/tick.png) 0% 10% no-repeat; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 24px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lines of force that are farther apart indicate a <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">WEAK</span> magnetic field.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic forces attract and repel like electric forces and when two lines of force are brought close together the interaction between the two magnetic fields causes one of two things to occur:</span></div>
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<li style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">1.</span>  –  When adjacent poles are the same, (north-north or south-south) they <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">REPEL</span> each other.</span></li>
<li style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 1.6em; list-style-type: none; margin: 5px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">2.</span>  –  When adjacent poles are not the same, (north-south or south-north) they <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">ATTRACT</span> each other.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">This effect is easily remembered by the famous expression that “opposites attract” and this interaction of magnetic fields can be easily demonstrated using iron fillings to show the lines of force around a magnet. The effect upon the magnetic fields of the various combinations of poles as like poles repel and unlike poles attract can be seen below.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic Field of Like and Unlike Poles</span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="magnetic poles" height="502" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag3.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Like and Unlike Magnetic Poles" width="410" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> <span style="line-height: 18.5714282989502px; text-align: justify;">When plotting magnetic field lines with a compass it will be seen that the lines of force are produced in such a way as to give a definite pole at each end of the magnet where the lines of force leave the North pole and re-enter at the South pole. Magnetism can be destroyed by heating or hammering the magnetic material, but cannot be destroyed or isolated by simply breaking the magnet into two pieces.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">So if you take a normal bar magnet and break it into two pieces, you do not have two halves of a magnet but instead each broken piece will somehow have its own North pole and a South pole. If you take one of those pieces and break it into two again, each of the smaller pieces will have a North pole and a South pole and so on. No matter how small the pieces of the magnet become, each piece will still have a North pole and a South pole, crazy!.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Then in order for us to make use of magnetism in electrical or electronic calculations, it is necessary to define what are the various aspects of magnetism.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><u>The Magnitude of Magnetism</u></span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">We now know that the lines of force or more commonly the magnetic flux around a magnetic material is given the Greek symbol, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Phi</span>, ( <span class="mtxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">Φ</span> ) with the unit of flux being the <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Weber</span>, ( <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Wb</span> ) after Wilhelm Eduard Weber. But the number of lines of force within a given unit area is called the “Flux Density” and since flux ( <span class="mtxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; font-size: 14px; text-align: center;">Φ</span> ) is measured in ( <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Wb</span> ) and area ( <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">A</span> ) in metres squared, ( <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">m<span style="bottom: 0.7em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span> ), flux density is therefore measured in <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Webers/Metre<span style="bottom: 0.7em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span> or ( <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Wb/m<span style="bottom: 0.7em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span> ) and is given the symbol <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">B</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">However, when referring to flux density in magnetism, flux density is given the unit of the <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Tesla</span>after Nikola Tesla so therefore one <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">Wb/m<span style="bottom: 0.7em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span></span> is equal to one Tesla, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">1Wb/m<span style="bottom: 0.7em; box-sizing: border-box; font-size: 10px; line-height: 0; position: relative; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;">2</span> = 1T</span>. Flux density is proportional to the lines of force and inversely proportional to area so we can define <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Flux Density</span>as:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetic Flux Density : </span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="magnetic flux density" height="56" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag4.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Magnetic Flux Density" width="448" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The symbol for magnetic flux density is <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">B</span> and the unit of magnetic flux density is the Tesla, <span class="ntxt" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #5078b4; text-align: center;">T</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="Flux Density Equation" height="57" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag5.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Magnetic Flux Density Equation" width="216" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">It is important to remember that all calculations for flux density are done in the same units, e.g., flux in webers, area in m2 and flux density in Teslas.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Magnetism Example No1</span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The amount of flux present in a round magnetic bar was measured at 0.013 webers. If the material has a diameter of 12cm, calculate the flux density.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The cross sectional area of the magnetic material in m2 is given as:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="magnetism cross section" height="102" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag6.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Cross-sectional Area" width="313" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The magnetic flux is given as 0.013 webers, therefore the flux density can be calculated as:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img alt="flux density" height="75" src="http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/mag7.gif" style="border: none; box-sizing: border-box; height: auto; max-width: 100%; vertical-align: middle;" title="Flux Density" width="400" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">So the flux density is calculated as 1.15 Teslas.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">When dealing with magnetism in electrical circuits it must be remembered that one Tesla is the density of a magnetic field such that a conductor carrying 1 ampere at right angles to the magnetic field experiences a force of one newton-metre length on it and this will be demonstrated in the next tutorial about Electromagnetism.</span></div>
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Magnetism

Electromagnetism is produced when an electrical current flows through a simple conductor such as a piece of wire or cable. A small magnet...

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